A Study on Retention Challenges and Stakeholder Influence – The Sport Journal

ABSTRACT

Purpose:

This study examines the ongoing decline of lacrosse officials in the Midwest by exploring how stakeholder behavior, organizational support, and personal motivations affect officials’ decisions to continue or leave the profession. The goal is to identify key factors contributing to attrition and provide practical recommendations for improving retention.

Methods:

A mixed-methods survey design was used to collect data from 55 lacrosse officials who had officiated in the Midwest within the past five years. Participants responded to a series of closed-ended questions assessing demographics, officiating experience, and interactions with coaches, fans, and players. Open-ended responses were also collected to contextualize and support quantitative results. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, and illustrative quotes were used to reinforce common trends.

Results:

Most participants were White males over the age of 40, with more than a decade of officiating experience. While abuse from players was reported less frequently, officials indicated that verbal abuse from coaches and fans occurred often and significantly impacted their officiating experience. Additionally, officials expressed mixed feelings about the support they receive from associations and assignors. Despite these challenges, most participants reported a strong personal connection to the game and cited their passion for lacrosse and desire to give back as primary reasons for continuing. A subset of respondents, however, acknowledged that negative experiences have made them consider leaving the profession.

Conclusions:

Findings highlight the important role personal passion plays in keeping officials engaged despite a lack of institutional support and ongoing negative stakeholder interactions. Without meaningful changes to reduce abuse and increase organizational support, the officiating pipeline will remain vulnerable. The study also raises concerns about the lack of demographic diversity in lacrosse officiating, warranting further exploration.

Applications in Sport:

The results have practical implications for lacrosse governing bodies, assignors, and administrators. Improving sideline behavior, increasing compensation, offering mentorship, and expanding recruitment efforts to underrepresented groups could significantly improve retention and build a more sustainable and inclusive officiating workforce.

Key Words: officiating, lacrosse, referee retention, stakeholder behavior, sport management

INTRODUCTION

The shortage of sports officials, particularly in youth and high school sports, is a pressing issue that threatens organized athletics’ operational integrity and sustainability. The National Federation of High School Associations (NFHS) found that around 50,000 individuals have stopped serving as high school officials since the onset of the pandemic in 2020 (Niehoff, 2022). This decline can be attributed to several interrelated factors, including occupational stress, abuse from spectators, insufficient support systems, and inadequate training opportunities for officials.

Literature Review

The shortage of sports officials is increasingly attributed to the rising incidence of verbal and physical abuse directed at referees by players and spectators. Research indicates that abusive behavior, particularly at the grassroots level, significantly contributes to high turnover rates, with negative experiences reducing officials’ willingness to continue in the profession (Dawson et al., 2021; Rayner et al., 2016). Dawson et al. (2021) highlight the alarming decline in the number of qualified officials, stressing that this culture of abuse not only affects officials but also threatens the integrity of competitive sports. Additionally, issues such as harassment and discrimination, especially against female officials, further intensify attrition, creating a hostile environment that undermines the overall health of sports communities (Marshall et al., 2022; Webb et al., 2020).

In addition, the lack of adequate support, resources, and effective training opportunities exacerbates attrition, as many organizations fail to provide the necessary infrastructure to sustain officials’ careers (Webb et al., 2020; Tingle et al., 2014). Insufficient professional development and an aging workforce further compound the issue, necessitating innovative strategies to attract and retain younger officials (Ryan et al., 2014; Barnhill et al., 2018; Pierce et al., 2021). This literature emphasizes the multifaceted challenges in officiating and highlights the critical need for systemic changes to address the issues of abuse, support, and recruitment.

The Decline of Lacrosse Officials 

The decline of lacrosse officials in the Midwest has raised concerns regarding the sustainability of officiating in growing sports leagues. In recent years, the shortage of qualified officials has emerged as a critical issue. Lacrosse, a sport that has enjoyed significant regional growth in the Midwest, now faces challenges similar to those observed in other sports arenas (Ridinger et al., 2017). The decline in the number of lacrosse officials not only impedes game integrity but also affects the overall development of the sport. Existing literature has shown that multifaceted factors, including motivational changes, psychosocial stressors, and insufficient support structures, play essential roles in the retention and attrition of referees (Livingston & Forbes, 2016; Ridinger, 2015).

Negative Stakeholder Behavior

The decline in the number of lacrosse officials in the Midwest can be tied to negative stakeholder behavior, particularly from parents, coaches, and fans. This trend is troubling, as officials play a critical role in maintaining the integrity and safety of the game. The psychological impact of abuse from various stakeholders on referees cannot be overstated. Studies indicate that officials often experience significant stress and mental health challenges due to verbal abuse and aggression directed at them during games, which can lead to a decline in their overall job satisfaction and motivation (Breslin et al., 2022; Giel & Breuer, 2021).

It is important to note that the abuse received by officials, from players, coaches, and spectators, is frequently normalized within many sports environments. Research in sports such as rugby and football demonstrates that officials often report feeling overwhelmed by hostility from these groups (Webb et al., 2019; Webb et al., 2018). This hostility not only affects the officiating experience but can also deter potential new referees from entering the field. Furthermore, the retention rates of officials are directly influenced by the social interactions they have with these stakeholder groups, and the lack of positive reinforcement or sportsmanship has been shown to exacerbate dropout intentions (Giel & Breuer, 2021).

The influence of these stressors is particularly notable in the context of youth sports, where the pressure from parents and coaches can create a toxic atmosphere for officials trying to enforce rules and manage games. Coaches, in their roles, often have a substantial impact on how players perceive referees, which in turn affects the emotional atmosphere during matches (Webb, 2020). If coaches model negative behaviors, such as disrespect towards referees, it can lead to a cycle of abuse where players mimic these actions, further isolating officials and intensifying their negative experiences (Webb et al., 2018).

Interventions aimed at increasing awareness and promoting mental health support among referees are essential in addressing this decline. Recommendations have been made for mental health training for stakeholders to improve the overall environment surrounding officiating and reduce instances of abuse (Breslin et al., 2022). Additionally, stakeholder education on the consequences of negative behaviors towards officials can help reshape perspectives and foster a more respectful sporting culture. Such measures would not only help in maintaining a robust pool of lacrosse officials but also promote a healthier, more inclusive environment for all participants in the sport.

Abuse
Abuse, both verbal and physical, is a significant contributor to officiating attrition, with numerous studies highlighting its impact on officials’ mental health and intentions to quit. Brick et al. (2022) found that nearly all Gaelic Games officials surveyed (94.29%) had encountered verbal abuse, and almost one in four (23.06%) had experienced physical abuse during their careers. Verbal abuse was shown to be frequent and directly linked to mental health issues and quitting intentions, with distress acting as a mediating factor. Similarly, Webb et al. (2018) documented the prevalence of both verbal and physical abuse in rugby league, finding that emotional abuse (i.e., intimidation, swearing, and threats) and physical aggression (i.e., pushing and hitting) significantly reduced job satisfaction. These hostile environments, particularly when abuse is persistent and unaddressed, contribute to officials leaving their roles.

The impact of abuse on officiating extends across various sports and levels. For instance, Ridinger et al. (2017) revealed that 42% of 2,485 high school referees identified abuse as the most significant challenge in their roles, and 10% cited abuse as a factor in their intention to quit. This aligns with findings from Kavanagh et al. (2021), who reported that abuse in youth soccer led to emotional exhaustion and burnout among officials. Tingle et al. (2014) also noted that the normalization of verbal abuse within sports culture exacerbates the negative effects on officials, especially for newcomers lacking support systems. Collectively, these studies underscore the need for sports organizations to implement proactive abuse prevention measures and institutional support to mitigate attrition and improve the officiating experience.

Unsupportive Interactions
Unsupportive social dynamics play a critical role in officials’ decisions to leave their positions. Warner et al. (2013) examined the effects of problematic peer interactions and inadequate mentoring in sports such as lacrosse, revealing how these relational shortcomings contribute to officiating attrition. When officials lack meaningful support from mentors or peers and feel disconnected from a broader officiating community, their engagement and satisfaction decline. The Referee Retention Scale (Ridinger et al., 2017) identifies several social factors that contribute to retention, including several factors that address a sense of community and mentoring support. These elements reflect the importance of fostering interpersonal relationships that reinforce a positive officiating experience (Table 1).

Table 1
 Key Factors Contributing to Referee Retention

Note. Adapted from Ridinger, L. L., Kim, K. R., Warner, S., & Tingle, J. K. (2017). Development of the Referee Retention Scale. Journal of Sport Management, 31(5), 514–527.

In addition to interpersonal issues, organizational shortcomings also undermine retention efforts. Warner et al. (2013) highlighted how insufficient policy frameworks and administrative neglect exacerbate attrition, particularly when officiating structures fail to proactively address the evolving needs of officials. The Referee Retention Scale provides a methodological foundation for identifying these structural deficiencies. Notably, factors such as “Administrator Consideration” and “Lack of Stress” underscore the role of fair management practices and manageable work environments in referee satisfaction. Furthermore, Livingston and Forbes (2016) and Ridinger (2015) emphasize the necessity of aligning recruitment and retention strategies with officials’ motivations and expectations. Collectively, these findings stress that without intentional and sustained institutional support, officiating organizations risk ongoing loss of personnel due to preventable burnout and disengagement.

Referee Retention

Research on referee retention has provided useful insights into the systemic and individual challenges impacting officiating roles. Ridinger et al. (2017) developed the Referee Retention Scale to assess factors such as job satisfaction, perceived organizational support, and the prevalence of abuse, all of which are directly linked to declining retention rates. Their work underscores that referee attrition is often precipitated by issues that extend beyond the administrative domain and delve into psychosocial and environmental stressors. Similarly, Livingston and Forbes (2016) investigated the evolving motivations of amateur sport officials and confirmed that changes in personal goals and external support diminish retention levels over time. Their study, although centered on Canadian officials, provides a framework that is applicable to the Midwest context, where similar socio-organizational dynamics are at play.

Ridinger (2015) compared the experiences of baseball umpires and lacrosse officials, revealing common constraints such as economic shortages and inadequate mentorship. This comparative analysis highlights that lacrosse officials, in particular, face challenges that are exacerbated by limited training opportunities and the absence of community-based support systems. In other research pertinent to community sports, Baxter et al. (2021) examined the experiences of female volunteer officials, outlining barriers and motivators that resonate with broader issues affecting retention. Although focused on gender-related dimensions of officiating, their findings reinforce the notion that organizational policies and social support are crucial to sustaining a committed officiating workforce.

The literature clearly indicates that the decline of lacrosse officials in the Midwest is a complex phenomenon influenced by issues of retention, support deficiency, and exposure to abuse. By synthesizing insights from multiple studies, this review stresses the importance of a comprehensive strategy that includes recruitment, retention, and preventive measures to improve the working environment for lacrosse officials. Future research and policy changes informed by these findings will be crucial in reversing the downward trend and ensuring the long-term sustainability of lacrosse officiating.

Conclusion

Despite a growing body of literature on officiating attrition, few studies have examined the distinct cultural and geographic dynamics affecting lacrosse officials in emerging regions like the Midwest. The reviewed research highlights a multifaceted crisis, with lacrosse serving as a representative case of the broader challenges afflicting youth and high school sports. Across regional and national contexts, verbal abuse and safety concerns have emerged as key contributors to attrition. In the Midwest, the shortage of lacrosse officials is impeding sport development and compromising game quality.

National survey findings from NASO and NFHS reinforce the severity of the crisis, revealing that a majority of new officials depart within three years due to burnout, safety concerns, and undervaluation. While recent initiatives, such as the NFHS National Officials Consortium Summit and the #BecomeAnOfficial campaign, represent positive steps forward, the literature suggests that these efforts must be part of a broader, coordinated strategy. Interventions focused on stakeholder education, mental health support, structured mentorship, and the public acknowledgment of officials’ contributions are necessary to reverse current trends. Sustaining officiating in lacrosse will require systemic change, cultural realignment, and a renewed commitment to valuing those who enforce the rules and protect the integrity of the game.

METHODS

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to examine the underlying causes of the declining number of lacrosse officials in the Midwest. Specifically, it seeks to determine how stakeholder interactions, support structures, and personal motivations influence officials’ decisions to remain active in the field. The study is designed to inform retention strategies and stakeholder education efforts.

Methodology

Participants

Participants in this study were 55 lacrosse officials who officiated games across the Midwest region of the United States. Eligibility criteria required participants to have officiated lacrosse at any level (youth, high school, college, or club) within the past five years in a Midwest state. Participants were predominantly male and white, and ranged in age from 25 to 72 years old, with officiating experience spanning from less than 1 year to over 30 years. Participation was voluntary, and no compensation was provided.

Procedures

Data was collected via an anonymous online survey distributed through Qualtrics. Recruitment was conducted through email invitations sent to lacrosse officiating associations, assignors, and personal networks within the officiating community, as well as through social media posts targeting officials in the Midwest. The survey remained open for three weeks, with one reminder sent midway through the collection period. Prior to data collection, the study received Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval from Madonna University. Participants provided informed consent at the beginning of the survey.

The survey consisted of both closed and open-ended questions. Closed-ended items collected demographic information (age, gender, race/ethnicity, years of officiating experience) and information on perceived challenges in officiating (e.g., pay, scheduling, respect from stakeholders). Open-ended questions invited participants to elaborate on their experiences, including reasons for continuing or discontinuing officiating and suggestions for improving the officiating experience.

Data Analysis

Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, means) to summarize participant demographics and the prevalence of key issues identified by officials. Open-ended responses were reviewed to identify illustrative quotes that reinforced or provided examples of the quantitative findings. Qualitative responses were not formally coded or thematically analyzed but were used to add narrative context to the statistical results.

RESULTS

A total of 55 lacrosse officials from the Midwest region completed the survey. Participants ranged in age from 23 to 67 years (M = 45.8, SD = 11.2), with the majority identifying as male (85%) and White/Caucasian (94%). Officials reported working across multiple states, most commonly Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin. On average, participants had 14.3 years of officiating experience, with nearly all officiating at the youth and high school levels (92%). Additionally, 64% reported officiating collegiate lacrosse, and 9% officiated at the professional level.

Officials were asked about their experiences with negative interactions from various stakeholders. Verbal abuse from coaches was reported as occurring “sometimes” by 58% of respondents and “often” by 16%. Similar patterns emerged regarding fans and parents, with 49% reporting “sometimes” and 22% reporting “often” experiencing verbal abuse. Abuse from players was less frequent, with 51% of officials reporting “rarely” and 38% reporting “sometimes.” Despite these negative interactions, officials rarely reported fearing for their personal safety, with 74% indicating “never” and 18% “rarely” feeling unsafe while officiating.

Perceptions of support from officiating associations were mixed. While 42% of respondents felt “often” supported by their associations, 33% reported “sometimes” feeling supported, and 25% “rarely.” When asked how often they considered quitting due to negative experiences, 56% reported “never” considering leaving officiating, 24% “rarely,” 11% “sometimes,” and 9% “often.”

Qualitative responses provided further insight into officials’ motivations and concerns. Officials frequently cited a love for the game, a desire to give back to the sport, camaraderie with fellow officials, and ensuring opportunities for young athletes as primary reasons for continuing to officiate. One participant explained, “I won’t stop until my body no longer allows me to officiate,” while another noted, “If associations or assignors supported officials more, I’d feel better about continuing.” Conversely, low pay, spectator abuse, insufficient support from associations, and the physical demands of officiating as they age were commonly cited factors contributing to potential attrition.

Discussion

The findings of this study provide a nuanced look into the factors influencing lacrosse officials’ retention in the Midwest. Despite frequent reports of verbal abuse from coaches, players, and fans, many respondents reported continuing to officiate due to intrinsic motivations such as a love of the sport and a desire to give back. This aligns with prior research emphasizing passion and sport commitment as key drivers of officiating persistence. Finding joy in officiating can lead to better psychological outcomes, fostering an environment where officials are more likely to continue their engagement with the sport (Carson et al., 2020).

However, respondents also highlighted significant deterrents to retention, including low compensation, lack of recognition, poor treatment from stakeholders, and limited support from assigning organizations. These challenges are consistent with broader officiating literature identifying unsupportive environments and abuse as predictors of attrition. Research supports the notion that the challenges of managing player dynamics and external pressures, such as crowd noise, significantly impact officials’ performance and mental states (Carter et al., 2024). Therefore, the emotional and psychological investment in sport, empowered by both passion and commitment, is essential in nurturing a sustained career in officiating.

Interestingly, while many officials expressed dissatisfaction with aspects of the officiating experience, few indicated plans to immediately stop officiating, suggesting a complex interplay between commitment, tolerance for negative experiences, and practical constraints.

The demographic homogeneity of the sample raises additional concerns. The overwhelming representation of older White men suggests potential gaps in recruitment or retention efforts targeting women and racial minorities. Given lacrosse’s growing popularity and emphasis on inclusion, this lack of diversity warrants further investigation and intervention.

Collectively, these findings reinforce the need for officiating associations and lacrosse governing bodies to implement more robust training, mentorship, and support systems. Addressing verbal abuse, improving communication, and recognizing officials’ contributions may improve retention. Ultimately, sustaining a high-quality officiating workforce requires addressing both systemic challenges and individual experiences.

Future Research

While this study offers valuable insight into the experiences of lacrosse officials in the Midwest, it also highlights several opportunities for future research. First, the demographic composition of respondents (predominantly White, male, and middle-aged or older) suggests a need to explore barriers to entry and advancement for underrepresented groups in officiating. Investigating the experiences of women, racial minorities, and younger officials could help identify structural or cultural factors limiting diversity in the officiating pipeline.

Additionally, future research could expand beyond the Midwest to assess whether similar trends exist nationally or vary by region. Comparative studies across different competitive levels (youth, high school, collegiate, professional) may also reveal distinct challenges and support mechanisms. Finally, longitudinal research could track officials over time to better understand career trajectories, burnout risk, and retention strategies. Together, these avenues of inquiry can build a more comprehensive understanding of officiating challenges and inform evidence-based recruitment and retention initiatives.

CONCLUSIONS

This study sheds light on the complex realities facing lacrosse officials across the Midwest, revealing a profession challenged by inadequate pay, lack of respect from key stakeholders, inconsistent scheduling practices, and minimal institutional support. Despite these hurdles, officials overwhelmingly cited their love of the game, passion for supporting athletes, and commitment to the sport as primary motivators for continuing their work. This finding underscores a critical dynamic: lacrosse officiating, particularly in under-resourced regions, is being sustained largely by the intrinsic dedication and personal investment of its officials rather than by systemic support or professional incentives.

Without this fierce passion for the sport, it is likely that attrition would be even higher. Many participants described tolerating negative treatment, logistical difficulties, and low compensation solely because of their deep-rooted connection to lacrosse. While this dedication is admirable, it raises serious concerns about sustainability and burnout. The profession cannot rely indefinitely on goodwill and personal sacrifice without addressing the structural and cultural issues contributing to official dissatisfaction and turnover.

These findings highlight the urgent need for action to support and retain lacrosse officials and ensure the sport’s long-term sustainability. Ultimately, this study emphasizes that lacrosse officiating in the Midwest stands at a crossroads.

APPLICATION IN SPORT

The findings of this study have clear implications for lacrosse governing bodies, officiating associations, assignors, coaches, and athletic administrators seeking to address the shortage of officials. First, targeted efforts to reduce verbal abuse and improve sideline behavior are critical for creating a more supportive environment that encourages retention. Educational workshops for coaches, parents, and athletes focused on respecting officials may help shift cultural norms and reduce negative interactions.

Second, the study highlights the need for stronger mentoring and peer support systems within officiating communities. Developing formal mentorship programs that connect new officials with experienced referees could foster a greater sense of belonging and resilience, improving retention among newer and younger officials. Assigning bodies should prioritize community-building activities, recognition initiatives, and accessible professional development opportunities to sustain engagement.

Additionally, improving compensation and scheduling practices may directly influence retention by addressing key logistical frustrations reported by officials. Providing consistent game assignments, clear communication, and timely pay can increase satisfaction and encourage officials to remain active longer.

Finally, the demographic homogeneity observed in this study signals an urgent need to broaden recruitment efforts to underrepresented groups, including women and racial minorities. Intentional outreach, training scholarships, and inclusive recruitment messaging may help diversify the officiating pipeline and ensure the sport’s continued growth. Implementing these strategies can help sport leaders, administrators, and policy makers foster a more sustainable, inclusive, and supportive officiating environment in lacrosse and beyond.